Automation QA Testing Course Content

Python Interview Questions and Answers

I’ve been asked this question in every python / data science interview I’ve ever had. Know the answer like the back of your hand.
  • Lists are mutable. They can be modified after creation.
  • Tuples are immutable. Once a tuple is created it cannot by changed
  • Lists have order. They are an ordered sequence of the same type of object. Ie: all user names ordered by creation date, ["Seth", "Ema", "Eli"]
  • Tuples have structure. Different data types may exist at each index. Ie: a database record in memory, (2, "Ema", "2020–04–16") # id, name, created_at
Without importing the Template class, there are 3 ways to interpolate strings.
name = 'Chris'# 1. f strings
print(f'Hello {name}')# 2. % operator
print('Hey %s %s' % (name, name))# 3. format
print(
 "My name is {}".format((name))
)
Early in my python career I assumed these were the same… hello bugs. So for the record, is checks identity and == checks equality.
We’ll walk through an example. Create some lists and assign them to names. Note that b points to the same object as a in below.
a = [1,2,3]
b = a
c = [1,2,3]
Check equality and note they are all equal.
print(a == b)
print(a == c)
#=> True
#=> True
But do they have the same identity? Nope.
print(a is b)
print(a is c)
#=> True
#=> False
We can verify this by printing their object id’s.
print(id(a))
print(id(b))
print(id(c))
#=> 4369567560
#=> 4369567560
#=> 4369567624
c has a different id than a and b.
Another questions I’ve been asked in every interview. It’s deserves a post itself, but you’re prepared if you can walk through writing your own example.
A decorator allows adding functionality to an existing function by passing that existing function to a decorator, which executes the existing function as well as additional code.
We’ll write a decorator that that logs when another function is called.
Write the decorator function. This takes a function, func, as an argument. It also defines a function, log_function_called, which calls func() and executes some code, print(f'{func} called.'). Then it return the function it defined
def logging(func):
  def log_function_called():
    print(f'{func} called.')
    func()
  return log_function_called
Let’s write other functions that we’ll eventually add the decorator to (but not yet).
def my_name():
  print('chris')def friends_name():
  print('naruto')my_name()
friends_name()
#=> chris
#=> naruto
Now add the decorator to both.
@logging
def my_name():
 print('chris')@logging
def friends_name():
 print('naruto')my_name()
friends_name()
#=> <function my_name at 0x10fca5a60> called.
#=> chris
#=> <function friends_name at 0x10fca5f28> called.
#=> naruto
See how we can now easily add logging to any function we write just by adding @logging above it.
Range generates a list of integers and there are 3 ways to use it.
The function takes 1 to 3 arguments. Note I’ve wrapped each usage in list comprehension so we can see the values generated.
range(stop) : generate integers from 0 to the “stop” integer.
[i for i in range(10)]
#=> [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
range(start, stop) : generate integers from the “start” to the “stop” integer.
[i for i in range(2,10)]
#=> [2, 3, 4]
range(start, stop, step) : generate integers from “start” to “stop” at intervals of “step”.
[i for i in range(2,10,2)]
#=> [2, 4, 6, 8]
class Car :
    def __init__(self, color, speed):
        self.color = color
        self.speed = speedcar = Car('red','100mph')
car.speed
#=> '100mph'
Instance methods : accept self parameter and relate to a specific instance of the class.
Static methods : use @staticmethod decorator, are not related to a specific instance, and are self-contained (don’t modify class or instance properties)
Class methods : accept cls parameter and can modify the class itself
We’re going to illustrate the difference around a fictional CoffeeShop class.
class CoffeeShop:
    specialty = 'espresso'
    
    def __init__(self, coffee_price):
        self.coffee_price = coffee_price
    
    # instance method
    def make_coffee(self):
        print(f'Making {self.specialty} for ${self.coffee_price}')
    
    # static method    
    @staticmethod
    def check_weather():
        print('Its sunny')    # class method
    @classmethod
    def change_specialty(cls, specialty):
        cls.specialty = specialty
        print(f'Specialty changed to {specialty}')
CoffeeShop class has a property, specialty, set to 'espresso' by default. Each instance of CoffeeShop is initialized with a property coffee_price . It also has 3 methods, an instance method, a static method and a class method.
Let’s initialize an instance of the coffee shop with a coffee_price of 5. Then call the instance method make_coffee.
coffee_shop = CoffeeShop('5')
coffee_shop.make_coffee()
#=> Making espresso for $5
Now call the static method. Static methods can’t modify class or instance state so they’re normally used for utility functions, for example, adding 2 numbers. We used ours to check the weather.Its sunny. Great!
coffee_shop.check_weather()
#=> Its sunny
Now let’s use the class method to modify the coffee shop’s specialty and then make_coffee.
coffee_shop.change_specialty('drip coffee')
#=> Specialty changed to drip coffeecoffee_shop.make_coffee()
#=> Making drip coffee for $5
Note how make_coffee used to make espresso but now makes drip coffee!
The purpose of this question is to see if you understand that all functions are also objects in python.
def func():
    print('Im a function')
    
func
#=> function __main__.func>func()    
#=> Im a function
func is the object representing the function which can be assigned to a variable or passed to another function. func() with parentheses calls the function and returns what it outputs.
map returns a list made up of the returned values from applying a function to every element in a sequence.
def add_three(x):
    return x + 3li = [1,2,3][i for i in map(add_three, li)]
#=> [4, 5, 6]
Above, I added 3 to every element in the list.
This can be tricky to wrap your head around until you use it a few times.
reduce takes a function and a sequence and iterates over that sequence. On each iteration, both the current element and output from the previous element are passed to the function. In the end, a single value is returned.
from functools import reducedef add_three(x,y):
    return x + yli = [1,2,3,5]reduce(add_three, li)
#=> 11
11 is returned which is the sum of 1+2+3+5.
Filter literally does what the name says. It filters elements in a sequence.
Each element is passed to a function which is returned in the outputted sequence if the function returns True and discarded if the function returns False.
def add_three(x):
    if x % 2 == 0:
        return True        
    else:
        return Falseli = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8][i for i in filter(add_three, li)]
#=> [2, 4, 6, 8]
Note how all elements not divisible by 2 have been removed.
Be prepared to go down a rabbit hole of semantics if you google this question and read the top few pages. You’re better off just having an idea how this works.
Immutable objects like strings, numbers and tuples are call-by-value. Notice how the value of name didn’t change outside the function when modified inside. The value of name was assigned to a new block in memory for the scope of that function.
name = 'chr'def add_chars(s):
    s += 'is'
    print(s)
    
add_chars(name)    
print(name)
#=> chris
#=> chr
Mutable objects like list are call-by-reference. Notice how the list defined outside the function was modified inside the function. The parameter in the function pointed to the original block in memory that stored the value of li.
li = [1,2]def add_element(seq):
    seq.append(3)
    print(seq)
    
add_element(li)    
print(li)
#=> [1, 2, 3]
#=> [1, 2, 3]
Note how reverse() is called on the list and mutates it. It doesn’t return the mutated list itself.
li = ['a','b','c']print(li)
li.reverse()
print(li)
#=> ['a', 'b', 'c']
#=> ['c', 'b', 'a']
Let’s see the results of multiplying the string ‘cat’ by 3.
'cat' * 3
#=> 'catcatcat'
The string is concatenated to itself 3 times.
Let’s see the result of multiplying a list, [1,2,3] by 2.
[1,2,3] * 2
#=> [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3]
A list is outputted containing the contents of [1,2,3] repeated twice.
Self refers to the instance of the class itself. It’s how we give methods access to and the ability to update the object they belong to.
Below, passing self to __init__() gives us the ability to set the color of an instance on initialization.
class Shirt:
    def __init__(self, color):
        self.color = color
        
s = Shirt('yellow')
s.color
#=> 'yellow'
Adding 2 lists together concatenates them. Note that arrays do not function the same way.
a = [1,2]
b = [3,4,5]a + b
#=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
We’ll discuss this in the context of a mutable object, a list. For immutable objects, shallow vs deep isn’t as relevant.
We’ll walk through 3 scenarios.
i) Reference the original object. This points a new name, li2, to the same place in memory to which li1 points. So any change we make to li1 also occurs to li2.
li1 = [['a'],['b'],['c']]
li2 = li1li1.append(['d'])
print(li2)
#=> [['a'], ['b'], ['c'], ['d']]
ii) Create a shallow copy of the original. We can do this with the list() constructor. A shallow copy creates a new object, but fills it with references to the original. So adding a new object to the original collection, li3, doesn’t propagate to li4, but modifying one of the objects in li3 will propagate to li4.
li3 = [['a'],['b'],['c']]
li4 = list(li3)li3.append([4])
print(li4)
#=> [['a'], ['b'], ['c']]li3[0][0] = ['X']
print(li4)
#=> [[['X']], ['b'], ['c']]
iii) Create a deep copy. This is done with copy.deepcopy(). The 2 objects are now completely independent and changes to either have no affect on the other.
import copyli5 = [['a'],['b'],['c']]
li6 = copy.deepcopy(li5)li5.append([4])
li5[0][0] = ['X']
print(li6)
#=> [['a'], ['b'], ['c']]
  • Lists exist in python’s standard library. Arrays are defined by Numpy.
  • Lists can be populated with different types of data at each index. Arrays require homogeneous elements.
  • Arithmetic on lists adds or removes elements from the list. Arithmetic on arrays functions per linear algebra.
  • Arrays also use less memory and come with significantly more functionality.
I wrote another comprehensive post on arrays.
Remember, arrays are not lists. Arrays are from Numpy and arithmetic functions like linear algebra.
We need to use Numpy’s concatenate function to do it.
import numpy as npa = np.array([1,2,3])
b = np.array([4,5,6])np.concatenate((a,b))
#=> array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
Python is very readable and there is a pythonic way to do just about everything, meaning a preferred way which is clear and concise.
I’d contrast this to Ruby where there are often many ways to do something without a guideline for which is preferred.
When working with a lot data, nothing is quite as helpful as pandas which makes manipulating and visualizing data a breeze.
Immutable means the state cannot be modified after creation. Examples are: int, float, bool, string and tuple.
Mutable means the state can be modified after creation. Examples are list, dict and set.
Use the round(value, decimal_places) function.
a = 5.12345
round(a,3)
#=> 5.123
Slicing notation takes 3 arguments, list[start:stop:step], where step is the interval at which elements are returned.
a = [0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9]print(a[:2])
#=> [0, 1]print(a[8:])
#=> [8, 9]print(a[2:8])
#=> [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]print(a[2:8:2])
#=> [2, 4, 6]
Pickling is the go-to method of serializing and unserializing objects in Python.
In the example below, we serialize and unserialize a list of dictionaries.
import pickleobj = [
    {'id':1, 'name':'Stuffy'},
    {'id':2, 'name': 'Fluffy'}
]with open('file.p', 'wb') as f:
    pickle.dump(obj, f)with open('file.p', 'rb') as f:
    loaded_obj = pickle.load(f)print(loaded_obj)
#=> [{'id': 1, 'name': 'Stuffy'}, {'id': 2, 'name': 'Fluffy'}]
Dict is python datatype, a collection of indexed but unordered keys and values.
JSON is just a string which follows a specified format and is intended for transferring data.
ORMs (object relational mapping) map data models (usually in an app) to database tables and simplifies database transactions.
SQLAlchemy is typically used in the context of Flask, and Django has it’s own ORM.
Any takes a sequence and returns true if any element in the sequence is true.
All returns true only if all elements in the sequence are true.
a = [False, False, False]
b = [True, False, False]
c = [True, True, True]print( any(a) )
print( any(b) )
print( any(c) )
#=> False
#=> True
#=> Trueprint( all(a) )
print( all(b) )
print( all(c) )
#=> False
#=> False
#=> True
Looking up a value in a list takes O(n) time because the whole list needs to be iterated through until the value is found.
Looking up a key in a dictionary takes O(1) time because it’s a hash table.
This can make a huge time difference if there are a lot of values so dictionaries are generally recommended for speed. But they do have other limitations like needing unique keys.
A module is a file (or collection of files) that can be imported together.
import sklearn
A package is a directory of modules.
from sklearn import cross_validation
So packages are modules, but not all modules are packages.
Increments and decrements can be done with +- and -= .
value = 5value += 1
print(value)
#=> 6value -= 1
value -= 1
print(value)
#=> 4
Use the bin() function.
bin(5)
#=> '0b101'
This can be done by converting the list to a set then back to a list.
a = [1,1,1,2,3]
a = list(set(a))
print(a)
#=> [1, 2, 3]
Use in.
'a' in ['a','b','c']
#=> True'a' in [1,2,3]
#=> False
append adds a value to a list while extend adds values in another list to a list.
a = [1,2,3]
b = [1,2,3]a.append(6)
print(a)
#=> [1, 2, 3, 6]b.extend([4,5])
print(b)
#=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
This can be done with the abs() function.
abs(2)
#=> 2abs(-2)
#=> 2
You can use the zip function to combine lists into a list of tuples. This isn’t restricted to only using 2 lists. It can also be done with 3 or more.
a = ['a','b','c']
b = [1,2,3][(k,v) for k,v in zip(a,b)]
#=> [('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)]
You can’t “sort” a dictionary because dictionaries don’t have order but you can return a sorted list of tuples which has the keys and values that are in the dictionary.
d = {'c':3, 'd':4, 'b':2, 'a':1}sorted(d.items())
#=> [('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3), ('d', 4)]
In the below example, Audi, inherits from Car. And with that inheritance comes the instance methods of the parent class.
class Car():
    def drive(self):
        print('vroom')class Audi(Car):
    passaudi = Audi()
audi.drive()
The easiest way is to split the string on whitespace and then rejoin without spaces.
s = 'A string with     white space'''.join(s.split())
#=> 'Astringwithwhitespace'
enumerate() allows tracking index when iterating over a sequence. It’s more pythonic than defining and incrementing an integer representing the index.
li = ['a','b','c','d','e']for idx,val in enumerate(li):
    print(idx, val)
#=> 0 a
#=> 1 b
#=> 2 c
#=> 3 d
#=> 4 e
pass means do nothing. We typically use it because Python doesn’t allow creating a class, function or if-statement without code inside it.
In the example below, an error would be thrown without code inside the i > 3 so we use pass.
a = [1,2,3,4,5]for i in a:
    if i > 3:
        pass
    print(i)
#=> 1
#=> 2
#=> 3
#=> 4
#=> 5
continue continues to the next element and halts execution for the current element. So print(i) is never reached for values where i < 3.
for i in a:
    if i < 3:
        continue
    print(i)
#=> 3
#=> 4
#=> 5
break breaks the loop and the sequence is not longer iterated over. So elements from 3 onward are not printed.
for i in a:
    if i == 3:
        break
    print(i)    
#=> 1
#=> 2
This for loop.
a = [1,2,3,4,5]
 
a2 = []
for i in a:
     a2.append(i + 1)print(a2)
#=> [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
Becomes.
a3 = [i+1 for i in a]print(a3)
#=> [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
List comprehension is generally accepted as more pythonic where it’s still readable.
The ternary operator is a one-line if/else statement.
The syntax looks like a if condition else b.
x = 5
y = 10'greater' if x > 6 else 'less'
#=> 'less''greater' if y > 6 else 'less'
#=> 'greater'
You can use isnumeric().
'123a'.isnumeric()
#=> False'123'.isnumeric()
#=> True
You can use isalpha().
'123a'.isalpha()
#=> False'a'.isalpha()
#=> True
You can use isalnum().
'123abc...'.isalnum()
#=> False'123abc'.isalnum()
#=> True
This can be done by passing the dictionary to python’s list() constructor, list().
d = {'id':7, 'name':'Shiba', 'color':'brown', 'speed':'very slow'}list(d)
#=> ['id', 'name', 'color', 'speed']
You can use the upper() and lower() string methods.
small_word = 'potatocake'
big_word = 'FISHCAKE'small_word.upper()
#=> 'POTATOCAKE'big_word.lower()
#=> 'fishcake'
remove() remove the first matching value.
li = ['a','b','c','d']li.remove('b')
li
#=> ['a', 'c', 'd']
del removes an element by index.
li = ['a','b','c','d']del li[0]
li
#=> ['b', 'c', 'd']
pop() removes an element by index and returns that element.
li = ['a','b','c','d']li.pop(2)
#=> 'c'li
#=> ['a', 'b', 'd']
Below we’ll create dictionary with letters of the alphabet as keys, and index in the alphabet as values.
# creating a list of letters
import string
list(string.ascii_lowercase)
alphabet = list(string.ascii_lowercase)# list comprehension
d = {val:idx for idx,val in enumerate(alphabet)} d
#=> {'a': 0,
#=>  'b': 1,
#=>  'c': 2,
#=> ...
#=>  'x': 23,
#=>  'y': 24,
#=>  'z': 25}
Python provides 3 words to handle exceptions, try, except and finally.
The syntax looks like this.
try:
    # try to do this
except:
    # if try block fails then do this
finally:
    # always do this
In the simplistic example below, the try block fails because we cannot add integers with strings. The except block sets val = 10 and then the finally block prints complete.
try:
    val = 1 + 'A'
except:
    val = 10
finally:
    print('complete')
    
print(val)
#=> complete
#=> 10

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